Home Region: Turkestan (Central and Northern Eurasia)

Koktepe I

1400 BCE 1000 BCE

D G SC WF R

EQ 2020 uz_koktepe_1 / UzKok01

Preceding Entity: Add one more here.

1800 BCE 1200 BCE Andronovo (kz_andronovo) [None]

Succeeding Entity: Add one more here.

1000 BCE 521 BCE Ancient Khwarazm (uz_khwarasm_1) [population replacement]

General Description

"Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafsan River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Vidēvdād, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. ^[1]
"Archaeologists are now generally agreed that the Andronovo culture of the Central Steppe region in the second millennium BC is to be equated with the Indo-Iranians. However, no matter how pastorally oriented these people’s culture probably was, they were no nomads. They lived in permanent houses, not on wagons or in tents as the earliest nomads are known to have done." ^[2]

According to Claude Rapin, for "the complex question relating to the Early Iron Age in Central Asia" read this (and another 2001 work)
Francfort, H. -P. 1989. Fouilles de Shortugai. Recherches sur l’Asie central protohistorique, Memoires de la Mission archeologique francaise en Asie centrale 2, Paris.

"it can be provisionally assumed that the two earlier Iron Age phases distinguished at Koktepe could represent the first manifestations of local agricultural development. Maurizio Tosi has proposed that for the southern slopes of the Zerafshan valley, along the Dargom canal, this economic system could have developed from an earlier period, when irrigation was limited to the natural flows of water from the foothills (Koktepe I period), to a later irrigation system, mainly exemplified by the excavation of the great canals deriving from the Zerafshan, the Bulungur and the Dargom (Koktepe II period)." ^[3]

"As was the case for various earlier constructions, both monuments were abandoned during a period of nomad invasions, possibly in the sixth century BC. (We know, for instance, that east of the Caspian Sea Darius I had to fight Scythian nomads like those represented by their king Skunkha illustrated as a defeated prisoner on the relief of Behistun)." ^[4]
??? - 1000 BCE Koktepe I
1000 - 750 BCE Chronological gap
750 - 550 BCE Koktepe II "sacred courtyard area" "strongly fortified courtyards" ^[4]
550 - ??? BCE Scythians? "nomadic establishment" ^[4]
??? - ??? BCE Koktepe IIIa "totally different expression of monumental urbanism" ^[4] - could be Archaemenid

Koktepe IIIa
"The next period is represented at Koktepe by the construction of two platforms with religious and political functions ... and by a huge fortification wall built in the plain around the site." ^[4]
"this rampart seems to have been built at the same time as the fortification that surrounds the plateau of Afrasiab ... Both walls not only protected monumental buildings, but also encircled a large open area, probably for the surrounding population to shelter with their cattle when necessary. This conception is characteristic of Central Asian urbanism near the steppe areas (Francfor 2001), and is also apparent in later cities, such as Ai Khanum or Taxila-Sirkap." ^[4]
"The sacred function of the monument, probably related to early Zoroastrianism (or at least to a local cult affiliated to the Indo-Iranian complex), is confirmed by the evidence of a ritual of foundation performed just before its construction." ^[5]

Early Iron Age settlement C14 dated to second-half of second and beginning of first millennium BCE. ^[6]

Koktepe site excavated by C. Rapin and M. Kh. Ismaddinov between 1994 and 2008 by the French Uzbek Archaeological Mission of Sogdiana. ^[6]
Site about 17ha. ^[6]
Of samples taken, earliest C14 date c1400-1200 BCE, latest C14 date 810-760 BCE ^[6]
"we can now suggest dividing the Early Iron Age in Sogdiana into two sub-periods characterized by a strong continuity." ^[6]

Köktepe I:
" L’objet le plus ancien de Koktepe est un poids discoïdal en pierre muni d’une anse datable du XVIIIe siècle av. n. è. Cette trouvaille isolée d’un instrument cultuel suppose le voisinage d’un site du bronze moyen que l’on ne peut identifier pour le moment, car les périodes les plus anciennes de l’occupation de la plaine du Zerafshan ne sont pour l’essentiel représentées aujourd’hui que par le site de Sarazm (Lyonnet 1996) et des trouvailles funéraires isolées (Avanesova 2010).
Le milieu urbain au début de l’occupation de Koktepe est celui d’une agglomération relativement dense composée de maisons à pièces multiples construites en piséau-dessus du sol, plus rarement creusées dans le sol naturel, mais vers la fin de cette période, l’habitat n’est plus représenté que par des huttes légères (figures 6-7). Le développement économique repose alors encore sur une agriculture sèche qui pourrait avoir été périodiquement secondée par les eaux d’un torrent de montagne (communications orales de B. Rondelli et M. Isamiddinov). Durant cette première phase, le site s’inscrit dans le contexte de la céramique modelée peinte caractéris-tique de la culture de Burgulûk (oasis de Tashkent), qui fait elle-même partie de la civilisation qui, du Turkménistan au Xinjiang, s’étend dans la période de transition entre l’age du bronze et l’age du fer, du dernier tiers du IIe millénaire au début du Ier millénaire av. n. è. (époque dite « de Yaz I ») (Lhuillier 2010 ; Lhuillier, Isamiddinov, Rapin 2012 ; Lyonnet, ce volume)." ^[7] During its first phase, Kok Tepe was part of the Burguluk culture, which corresponds to the Yaz I civilization from Turkmenistan to Xinjiang (last third of the second millennium BCE- beginning of the first millennium BCE)
"Pre-Achaemenid period. Before the arrival of Iranian peoples in Central Asia, Sogdiana had already experienced at least two urban phases. The first was at Sarazm (4th-3rd m. BCE), a town of some 100 hectares has been excavated, where both irrigation agriculture and metallurgy were practiced (Isakov). It has been possible to demonstrate the magnitude of links with the civilization of the Oxus as well as with more distant regions, such as Baluchistan. The second phase began in at least the 15th century BCE at Kok Tepe, on the Bulungur canal north of the Zarafšān River, where the earliest archeological material appears to go back to the Bronze Age, and which persisted throughout the Iron Age, until the arrival from the north of the Iranian-speaking populations that were to become the Sogdian group. It declined with the rise of Samarkand (Rapin, 2007). Pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana is recalled in the Younger Avesta (chap. 1 of the Videvdad, q.v.) under the name Gava and said to be inhabited by the Sogdians. ^[1]

Transition period between Kok01 and Kok02:"Sur le plan stratigraphique, la fin de cette première période vers la fin du IIe ou le début du Ier millénaire est apparemment marquée par une interruption de la céra-mique peinte. D’après les vestiges d’une épaisse couche organique présente partout sur le site, cette période pourrait avoir été celle d’une population semi-sédentaire, peut-être assez nombreuse, qui se serait installée à Koktepe avec du bétail. ^[8]
transition period: starting in the late 2nd millennium BCE/early 1st millennium BCE
no more painted ceramic
thick organic layer found stratigraphically on the whole site: semi-sedentary population, living on Koktepe with their animals.
Edward Turner’s interpretation of pre-Achaemenid Sogdiana (Koktepe in particular):
’The essential tension was the sedentary population needed (their irrigated) fields for growing crops, nomads needed land for grazing. so the "strongly fortified courtyards" is a manifestation of this tension.
another reason for fortification would be that wave/s of invasion/destruction had happened before:
"By 1600 BCE, peoples carrying the Andronovo cultural package had displaced, if not destroyed, the Bactrian/Margiana towns".
then the Yaz I replaced the Andronovo - UzKok01. (destruction then as well?)
if the inhabitants within the UzKok02 courtyards were Scythians they had probably invaded then settled c750 BCE, presumably causing some destruction of the previous culture.
an important line of evidence for invade/destroy/replace also is that it is likely that about 800 BCE the nomadic tribes around Central Asia began to use armies of horseback archers. the fact the sedentarized Scythians built fortifications must reflect the increased danger from the Steppe.
their identity lasted until either the Achaemenid or until another wave of Scythians destroyed their culture c550 BCE’.

[1]: (De la Vaissière, Encyclopedia Iranica online, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/sogdiana-iii-history-and-archeology)

[2]: (Beckwith 2009, 49) Beckwith, Christopher I. 2009. Empires of the Silk Road. A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton University Press. Princeton.

[3]: (Rapin 2007, 35) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.

[4]: (Rapin 2007, 36) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.

[5]: (Rapin 2007, 37) Rapin, Claude. "Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period." in Cribb, Joe. Herrmann, Georgina. 2007. After Alexander: Central Asia before Islam. British Academy.

[6]: (Lhuillier and Rapin 2013) Lhuillier, J. Rapin, C. Handmade painted ware in Koktepe: some elements for the chronology of the early Iron Age in northern Sogdiana. Wagner, Marcin ed. 2013. Pottery and Chronology of the Early Iron Age in Central Asia. Warszawa.

[7]: (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 124-125)

[8]: (Rapin and Isamiddinov 2013, 126)

General Variables

Identity and Location

1 Utm Zone

1 Original Name

1 Capital

2 Alternative Name

Temporal Bounds

1 Duration

Political and Cultural Relations

2 Supracultural Entity

1 Succeeding Entity

2 Polity Succession

1 Degree of Centralization

Language

1 Linguistic Family

Religion

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale

Hierarchical Complexity

1 Settlement Hierarchy

1 Religious Level

1 Military Level

1 Administrative Level

Professions

1 Professional Soldier

1 Professional Priesthood

1 Professional Military Officer

Bureaucracy Characteristics

1 Specialized Government Building

1 Merit Promotion

1 Full Time Bureaucrat

1 Examination System

Law

1 Professional Lawyer

1 Judge

1 Formal Legal Code

1 Court

Specialized Buildings: polity owned

1 Market

1 Irrigation System

1 Food Storage Site

1 Drinking Water Supply System

Transport Infrastructure

1 Road

1 Port

1 Canal

1 Bridge

Special-purpose Sites

Information / Writing System

1 Written Record

1 Script

1 Phonetic Alphabetic Writing

Information / Kinds of Written Documents

1 Scientific Literature

1 Sacred Text

1 Religious Literature

1 Practical Literature

1 Philosophy

1 Lists Tables and Classification

1 History

1 Fiction

1 Calendar

Information / Money

1 Paper Currency

1 Indigenous Coin

1 Foreign Coin

1 Article

Information / Postal System

1 Postal Station

1 General Postal Service

Information / Measurement System

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications

1 Wooden Palisade

1 Stone Walls Non Mortared

1 Stone Walls Mortared

1 Settlements in a Defensive Position

1 Modern Fortification

1 Moat

1 Fortified Camp

1 Earth Rampart

1 Ditch

1 Complex Fortification

Military use of Metals

1 Steel

1 Iron

1 Copper

1 Bronze

Projectiles

1 Tension Siege Engine

1 Sling Siege Engine

1 Self Bow

1 Handheld Firearm

1 Gunpowder Siege Artillery

1 Crossbow

1 Composite Bow

1 Atlatl

Handheld weapons

1 War Club

1 Sword

1 Spear

1 Polearm

1 Dagger

1 Battle Axe

Animals used in warfare

1 Horse

1 Elephant

1 Donkey

1 Dog

1 Camel

Armor

1 Shield

1 Leather Cloth

1 Helmet

1 Chainmail

Naval technology

1 Specialized Military Vessel

1 Small Vessels Canoes Etc

1 Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service

Economy Variables (Luxury Goods) Coding in Progress.

Religion Variables Coding in Progress.

Crisis Consequence Cases Coding in Progress.

Power Transitions Coding in Progress.

Instability Events Coding in Progress.

NGA Settlements:

Year Range	Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1) was in:
(1400 BCE 1000 BCE)	Sogdiana

Home NGA: Sogdiana

General Variables

Identity and Location Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Utm Zone	42 S	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Original Name	Koktepe I	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Capital	Koktepe	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Alternative Name	Burguluk culture	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Alternative Name	Yaz I civilization	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Temporal Bounds Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More
Duration	[1400 BCE ➜ 1000 BCE]
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Political and Cultural Relations Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Supracultural Entity	Yaz I civilization	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Supracultural Entity	Burguluk culture	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Succeeding Entity	Koktepe II	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Preceding Entity 1800 BCE 1200 BCE	Andronovo (kz_andronovo) [None]
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Succeeding Entity 1000 BCE 521 BCE	Ancient Khwarazm (uz_khwarasm_1) [population replacement]
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Degree of Centralization	quasi-polity	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Language Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Linguistic Family	NO_VALUE_ON_WIKI	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Religion Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Social Complexity Variables

Social Scale Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Hierarchical Complexity Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Settlement Hierarchy	[1 to 2]	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Religious Level	1	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Military Level	1	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Administrative Level	1	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Professions Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Soldier	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Professional Priesthood	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Professional Military Officer	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Bureaucracy Characteristics Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Government Building	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Merit Promotion	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Full Time Bureaucrat	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Examination System	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Law Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Professional Lawyer	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Judge	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Formal Legal Code	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Court	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Specialized Buildings: polity owned Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Market	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Irrigation System	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Food Storage Site	Absent Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Drinking Water Supply System	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Transport Infrastructure Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Road	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Port	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Canal	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Bridge	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Special-purpose Sites Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Information / Writing System Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Written Record	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Script	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Phonetic Alphabetic Writing	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Information / Kinds of Written Documents Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Scientific Literature	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Sacred Text	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Religious Literature	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Practical Literature	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Philosophy	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Lists Tables and Classification	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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History	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Fiction	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Calendar	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Information / Money Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Paper Currency	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Indigenous Coin	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Foreign Coin	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Article	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Information / Postal System Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Postal Station	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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General Postal Service	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Information / Measurement System Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More

Warfare Variables (Military Technologies)

Fortifications Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Wooden Palisade	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Stone Walls Non Mortared	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Stone Walls Mortared	Present Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Settlements in a Defensive Position	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Modern Fortification	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Moat	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Fortified Camp	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Earth Rampart	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Ditch	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Complex Fortification	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Military use of Metals Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Steel	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Iron	Present Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Copper	Present Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Bronze	Present	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Projectiles Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Tension Siege Engine	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Sling Siege Engine	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Self Bow	Present	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Handheld Firearm	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Gunpowder Siege Artillery	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Crossbow	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Composite Bow	Present Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Atlatl	Absent	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Handheld weapons Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
War Club	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Sword	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Spear	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Polearm	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Dagger	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Battle Axe	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Animals used in warfare Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Horse	Present Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Elephant	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Donkey	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Dog	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Camel	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Armor Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Shield	Present	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Leather Cloth	Present	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Helmet	Present	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Chainmail	Present Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Naval technology Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Specialized Military Vessel	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Small Vessels Canoes Etc	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Merchant Ships Pressed Into Service	Unknown Suspected	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Economy Variables (Luxury Goods)

Religion Variables

Moralizing Supernatural Punishment and Reward Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)
Moralizing Enforcement is Broad	Absent Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Concern is Primary	Absent Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Agentic	Unknown	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in This Life	Unknown	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Moralizing Supernatural Punishment And Reward	Present Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Commoners	Present	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Targeted	Transitional (Absent -> Present)	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement in Afterlife	Absent Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Moralizing Religion Adopted by Elites	Present Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement of Rulers	Present Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Moralizing Enforcement is Certain	Absent Inferred	1400 BCE 1000 BCE
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Human Sacrifice Koktepe I (uz_koktepe_1)

Variable	Coded Value / Certainty Tags	Year(s)	See More